November 16 in Military History

A force of 8,000 Hessian and British troops stormed Fort Washington on the northern tip of Manhattan, overwhelming its 2,900 Continental defenders. The fall of the last American position on Manhattan was a devastating blow: 59 Americans were killed and 2,837 captured, along with large quantities of weapons and supplies desperately needed by Washington's shrinking army.

Scottish missionary David Livingstone became the first European to see Mosi-oa-Tunya, which he named Victoria Falls. His explorations opened central Africa to European colonization and the "Scramble for Africa" that followed, triggering a century of military conflicts between European powers and African peoples.

Major General Ambrose Burnside began moving the Army of the Potomac southeast from Warrenton toward Falmouth and Fredericksburg, Virginia, executing the first major decision of his command. The operational choice depended on pontoon bridges that failed to arrive in time, surrendering the initiative that led to the catastrophic December frontal assault.

The Federal Reserve System opened for business, providing the financial infrastructure that would prove critical to financing American military operations in both World Wars. The ability to manage monetary policy and issue war bonds through the Federal Reserve gave the United States a decisive financial advantage over its adversaries.

The U.S. First and Ninth Armies launched a massive offensive toward the Roer River in the Hürtgen Forest and across the plains toward the Rhine. The campaign, one of the costliest American operations in Europe, would cost over 33,000 casualties in the Hürtgen Forest alone before the Battle of the Bulge temporarily halted the advance.

XX Bomber Command launched a major daylight strike from Chinese bases against the Mitsubishi Jukogyo aircraft factory at Omura on Kyushu, Japan. The mission tested B-29 long-range endurance against heavily defended Japanese industrial targets and accelerated the shift of strategic bombing operations from China to the Mariana Islands.

The first group of German rocket scientists, including Wernher von Braun, arrived at Fort Bliss under Operation Paperclip, providing the foundation for America's missile and space programs.

The Soviet Union launched Venera 3, the first spacecraft designed to land on another planet. The probe demonstrated long-duration deep-space communication, guidance, and heat-shield technology that flowed directly into Soviet and American strategic missile reentry vehicle and post-boost vehicle development during the Cold War.

NASA launched Skylab 4 atop a Saturn IB rocket, carrying astronauts Gerald Carr, Edward Gibson, and William Pogue on what became the longest American crewed spaceflight of the era, 84 days. The mission demonstrated long-duration human spaceflight capabilities with direct military reconnaissance implications.

The unmanned NASA X-43A scramjet aircraft reached Mach 9.6, setting the speed record for an air-breathing aircraft. The flight demonstrated hypersonic scramjet technology with profound military implications for future weapons systems, including hypersonic cruise missiles capable of reaching any point on Earth within hours.